The existence of human civilization has always been entirely dependent on soil and its fertility
Historically, the cultivation of new soil and agricultural production were balanced by self-sufficiency, winter reserves, the risk of crop failure, and the sale of surplus to sustain life.
By observing natural processes, humans realized that soil could be fertilized with organic matter from animals, irrigated, and preserved for future harvests. Across different continents and cultures, people developed methods to protect their crops from emerging and accompanying diseases and pests.
The foundation of such protection was always proper soil management and strict adherence to seasonal vegetation cycles, taking into account possible outbreaks (predictions) of epizootics and epiphytotics (the spread of plant diseases and pests).
People followed nature’s cues with great sensitivity
Numerous frescoes and drawings from ancient Egypt, Mexico, China, Japan, Southeast Asia, and other regions depict the process of soil cultivation and harvest collection.
These images serve as visualized instructions on the correct sequence of actions.
Crop failures often occurred, mainly due to weather conditions, loss of seed material, and pest infestations. This taught people another important agricultural practice—crop rotation. By periodically rotating crops, they disoriented pests and allowed the soil to recover.
As a rule, vegetable gardens and cultivated plots were located near settlements.
During the excavation of the ancient settlement of Arkaim in the Southern Ural region (18th–17th centuries BCE), aerial photography analysis revealed a “vegetable garden” with planting beds adjacent to the outer city wall. Similar findings have been noted in archaeological research near other ancient settlements.
Millennia passed, cities expanded and grew larger, and the world’s population multiplied. Agricultural technologies were exchanged and adapted across continents, leading to the introduction of new, previously unknown crops in different regions. However, along with these crops, pests and diseases often migrated as well.
Depending on the size of the territory and the availability of arable land, some countries expanded their agricultural areas using the slash-and-burn method. This involved clearing forests—either by cutting down trees and removing stumps or by controlled burning—to create farmland. Agriculture was practiced on these plots for a certain period until the soil became depleted. Once fertility declined, the land was abandoned, overgrown, and people moved on to new locations.
This method was widely used in Russia and Europe and remains in practice in some regions of India, the tropical jungles of Africa, and the forests of the Americas. In Europe, widespread use of slash-and-burn agriculture during the Middle Ages led to significant deforestation. Even in Sweden, Finland, and Norway, this technique was used up until the mid-20th century.
As centuries passed, cities continued to expand, and the global population grew exponentially. Agricultural technologies spread across continents, introducing new and unfamiliar crops. But with these innovations, pests and plant diseases also spread.
The largest land areas were always dedicated to grain cultivation. On one hand, this led to the refinement of farming techniques, including soil preparation, irrigation systems, harvesting methods, grain threshing, and storage in granaries. On the other hand, monoculture farming became widespread. Over long periods, this practice led to soil depletion and increased susceptibility to pests and diseases—not only in grains but also in industrial crops such as cotton and flax.
Another approach also emerged—the closed-loop agro-eco-farming systems, best exemplified in Southeast Asia. In China, for instance, vegetable farming techniques have allowed the cultivation of vegetables and rice on the same land for thousands of years without loss of soil fertility or major pest problems. These farmers relied solely on organic fertilizers, regionally adapted seeds, and strict adherence to agricultural techniques suited to local climate conditions and vegetation cycles. This approach effectively prevented pest infestations and plant diseases.
In many mountainous regions of the world, farmers practice terraced farming, a technique where the soil for the next terrace is prepared over decades. Those who engage in this work understand that they will never see the results themselves—these efforts are made for future generations.
The peasant homesteads of Arkhangelsk, Vologda, and other regions, as well as Siberia, were traditionally developed with careful consideration of the surrounding landscape. Over centuries, farmers refined their crop selection, crop rotation systems, and harvest optimization strategies. Livestock played an essential role, as manure collected over the winter was used as fertilizer. The land was never overworked. The size of a farming family was also a crucial factor, ensuring that every member had a role in agricultural production. Moreover, field farming was harmonized with wild plant gathering and beekeeping.
Agroecosystems can be found in the most unexpected places
During the Middle Ages, Europe, China, Japan, and the Arab world developed remarkable gardens, some of which trace their origins to the famous Hanging Gardens of Babylon.
These gardens were typically established near urban courtyards, castles, and the estates of nobles and monarchs. They ranged from large to small, featuring agricultural landscapes combined with park complexes, medicinal gardens, and carefully curated ecosystems populated by domesticated animals and songbirds. Some gardens even featured hedge mazes, while plants were arranged in patterns that included aromatic herbs and medicinal crops, which helped protect other plants from pests.
Several such ancient gardens still exist today. In Suzhou, China, there are The Fisherman’s Garden and The Administrator’s Garden, while in Europe, one of the best-preserved examples of a garden-farm concept can be found on Lake Geneva in the small museum town of Yvoire, France—the renowned “Garden of the Five Senses”, which remains a popular tourist attraction.
As the centuries passed, cities expanded, and the global population grew dramatically. Agricultural technologies spread across continents, introducing new, unfamiliar crops, but along with them came pests and diseases.
The rise of monoculture farming led to soil depletion and increased vulnerability to pests and plant diseases, not only in grain crops but also in industrial crops such as flax and cotton.
The Industrial Revolution of the 17th–19th centuries also had a profound impact on agriculture. The demand for factory workers led to a rapid increase in urban populations, placing greater strain on agricultural land.
During this period, the chemical industry developed rapidly. Scientists identified the key chemical elements in soil that contributed to crop yields and began to create synthetic fertilizers. This field of study became known as agrochemistry.
Renowned scientists from Europe—and later Russia—became deeply involved in such research, developing both single-component and complex chemical fertilizers and designing their application methods based on crop characteristics and climatic conditions.
By the mid-20th century, in Russia’s leading agricultural university—Timiryazev Agricultural Academy, an academic dispute emerged between supporters of agrochemical farming and proponents of ley farming, who argued for crop rotation, leaving land fallow, and the use of green manure (siderates)—natural grass-based fertilizers obtained through controlled mowing.
However, in Russia, as in Germany and other countries, there was strong lobbying by businessmen invested in the sale of chemical fertilizers, which at the time were a byproduct of military explosives production. Ultimately, the agrochemical approach prevailed.
The rapid industrialization, urban expansion, and the rise of the oil industry led to the creation of a chemical pharmaceutical sector. Founded by oil magnate John Rockefeller, this industry introduced new types of petroleum-based medicines that, through intense lobbying, displaced traditional medicine—first in the United States and later in other countries.
The challenges of protecting agricultural crops and livestock from diseases and pests closely mirrored those of pharmaceuticals. As a result, the chemical pharmaceutical industry expanded into agriculture, producing a wide range of pesticides.
The large-scale development of chemical production, agricultural machinery, and the adoption of monoculture farming for grain crops, oilseed crops, industrial crops, and fodder crops led to the loss of the principle of ecological balance. Farmers increasingly disregarded the natural synergies within agriculture, failing to harness the self-sustaining forces of living biota that had traditionally preserved yields and maintained soil productivity.
The primary goal of chemical and biological (weakened strains) medications has always been to suppress disease pathogens, prevent infections, and support immunity development. However, it is well known that any medicine can easily turn into a poison.
Just like chemical antibiotics, pesticides (including herbicides, insecticides, and other agricultural chemicals) exhibit a similar effect—pathogens gradually develop resistance to these chemicals by adapting to specific compounds. This necessitates the continuous development of new pesticides and treatments.
At the same time, in monoculture farming, crops have increasingly suffered from chronic plant diseases.
As a result, we are now witnessing a decline in the quality of agricultural products, with some even becoming dangerously contaminated. In addition, soil fertility is diminishing, and every year, epiphytotics (widespread outbreaks of plant diseases) and epizootics (infectious outbreaks among animals, affecting one or multiple species) are becoming more frequent.
One of the most striking examples is cotton wilt (Fusarium wilt). This is a systemic disease, in which pathogens infect plants through the soil. Fungal mycelium first penetrates the plant’s root system, then spreads into the stem, and ultimately clogs the vascular system of the leaves, causing premature leaf drop in the early stages of infection. Controlling this disease is extremely difficult, as it requires deep sterilization of the soil (sometimes through steaming).
During the 1970s, Fusarium wilt devastated nearly all cotton-growing regions in Central Asia, and the cotton industry has never fully recovered to its previous scale.
Given the ongoing global climate changes, now—more than ever—there is a need for a modern predictive monitoring system that can track the emergence of pests, plant and animal diseases, quarantine weeds, and the spread of epiphytotics and epizootics worldwide.
Throughout the history of agriculture, people have identified the natural enemies of agricultural pests and learned to breed them artificially for use when necessary. However, this biological pest control is only feasible in small and medium-sized farms. In large agribusinesses, pesticides remain the primary method of pest management.
Currently, out of more than 5,000 insect species classified as harmful to agricultural crops, over 600 have developed resistance to all major pesticides, and this number continues to grow. Their food base includes more than half of all regionally adapted crop varieties.
In Europe, approximately 35 insect species are now completely resistant to 60 different pesticides. The trend is alarming:
- In the 1950s, resistance was observed in 12 cases per 1,000 insects.
- By the 1970s, this number had increased to 300 per 1,000.
- In the 1980s, resistance cases exceeded 800 per 1,000.
- By the 1990s, virtually all of these 35 insect species had developed full resistance to pesticides.
With the movement of crops across countries and continents, the concept of quarantine crops emerged—newly introduced crops that bring new pests along with them. These pests recognize no borders.
At the same time, pests are evolving their strategies.
For example, in the early 1980s, the codling moth had two to three distinct generations per season. Farmers controlled them with pesticides, but the pest adapted. Now, codling moths hatch unpredictably—up to twelve times per summer. Additionally, some pupae enter dormancy and emerge only the following year, making eradication even more difficult. Out of the ten effective insecticides once used against codling moths, only one remains effective today.
A similar situation has occurred with late blight (Phytophthora). It has now developed over 140 genetically distinct strains, making breeding resistant crops practically impossible.
An even greater hidden danger is mycotoxins.
Currently, over 2,000 types of mycotoxins (toxic substances produced by certain mold fungi) have been identified, though only about 100 have been studied, and fewer than 10 are regularly tested in food products. These toxins are extremely persistent—they cannot be broken down by acids, alkalis, light, or pressure. Some can withstand temperatures up to 400°C (752°F)!
They are incredibly toxic—and they are everywhere.
Mold fungi, rot, and fungal plant diseases serve as their factories. One of the most concerning issues today is the toxicity of modern bread: due to current grain storage methods, the toxic levels in stored grain can increase 20 to 40 times within a year.
Thousands of new toxins, extreme fungal adaptability, and an uncontrollable variety of fungal species—this is nature’s response to the chemical onslaught unleashed by humans.
Today, mycotoxins are responsible for a wide range of diseases, and fungi, in their chemical counterattacks, are infiltrating the human body, growing stronger with each new antibiotic introduced into our system. They are at the forefront of the gradual degradation of human immunity.
In reality, mycotoxins pose a far greater health risk than their so-called “godfathers”—pesticides.
The shortcomings of chemical protection became evident when houseflies stopped dying from insecticides, followed by at least twelve other insect species. Increasing the dosage no longer worked. This led to the emergence of the concept of Integrated Pest Management (IPM)—a strategy that incorporates biological and ecological control methods to balance out the effects of chemical interventions.
One of the Seventeen Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) established by the United Nations (UN) in 2015 states: “protect, restore, and promote the sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, manage forests responsibly, combat desertification, halt and reverse land degradation, and prevent biodiversity loss.”
The UN-endorsed implementation of this goal calls for a transition toward ecological harmonization in soil management and agricultural activities.
The urgency of transitioning to sustainable agriculture is based on several key factors:
- The loss of arable land:
The amount of land suitable for agriculture is shrinking due to increasing land occupation by:
- Urban expansion;
- Industrial zones, military and other testing grounds, and landfills;
- Mining operations, including open-pit mining and quarries.
- Rising population and food demand:
Global demographic trends indicate continuous population growth, leading to an increased demand for food production. - Soil degradation from centuries of agricultural exploitation:
Most agricultural land has been intensively farmed for hundreds of years, causing soil depletion and reducing its resistance to pests, diseases, and invasive weeds. - Long-term reliance on synthetic fertilizers:
More than a century of active use of synthetic mineral fertilizers has led to:
- Loss of natural soil fertility, making land dependent on chemical fertilizers;
- Imbalances in macro- and micronutrients in the soil, disrupting soil health.
- The toxic burden of chemical pesticides:
Alongside chemical fertilizers (agrochemicals), the greatest concern in modern industrial farming is the use of synthetic pesticides for both crop cultivation and harvest preservation. Over time, toxic residues from these chemicals accumulate in the soil.
Over the course of their widespread use (20th–21st centuries), several alarming trends have emerged:
- The constant need to update pesticide formulations due to declining toxicity and increased pest resistance;
- Targeted mutations in certain pest species, allowing them to develop immunity to chemical treatments;
- Decreasing resistance to pesticides in weaker, selectively bred crop varieties, leading to genetic decline in plants;
- An expanding range of pest-preferred crops, as pests adapt to a greater variety of food sources.
These developments have resulted in:
- Agriculture’s growing dependence on pesticide suppliers;
- The expansion of the list of permitted agrochemicals;
- The accumulation of toxic pesticide residues in soil and other ecosystems;
- Serious environmental issues stemming from fertilizer and pesticide production industries.
To ensure human survival, the world must transition to ecological farming and restore ecosystems by adopting alternatives to chemically intensive agriculture.
These solutions already exist—they must be studied and implemented.
Authors
Oksana Yuryevna Tsitser
Agrochemist and soil scientist, agronomist,
International expert on environmental safety,
Expert at the “Eco-Accord Center” (Eko-soglasiye).
Alexander Evgenyevich Usanin
General Director of ANPO “Revival of the Earth” (Vozrozhdeniye Zemli).
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